Lecture Sheet On “Conditionals”
Conditional Verb Forms
If I had a hammer, I’d hammer in the morning,
I’d hammer in the evening, all over this land.
I’d hammer out danger, I’d hammer out warning,
I’d hammer out love between my brothers and my sisters
Oh, oh, all over this land.
If I had a bell, I’d ring it in the morning,
I’d ring it in the evening, all over this land.
I’d ring out danger, I’d ring out warning,
I’d ring out love between my brothers and my sisters
Oh, oh, all over this land.
So go the first two stanzas of Lee Hays and Pete Seeger’s folk tune, “If I had a hammer,” one of the most famous tunes and lyrics in the history of American song. The grammar of the lyrics uses what is called the conditional. The writer expresses an action or an idea (hammering out danger and warning and love) that is dependent on a condition, on something that is only imagined (having a hammer or a bell — or, in the next stanza, a song). In this situation, the lyricist imagines what he would do if he “had a hammer” — now, in the present. He might also have imagined what he would have done if he “had had a hammer,” in the past, prior to something else happening:
“If I had had a hammer, I would have hammered a warning.”
The conditional is possible also in the future tense:
“If I have a hammer tomorrow, I might hammer out warning.
OR
. . . I will hammer out warning.”
OR
“If I were to have a hammer tomorrow, I would hammer out warning.”
And, finally, he could imagine what is called the habitual present conditional:
“If/when I have a hammer, I hammer out warning.” [I do it all the time, whenever I have a hammer.]
The Factual versus the Unreal or Hypothetical
In expressing a conditional situation, we must be able to distinguish between what is a factual statement and what is a hypothetical statement. (Other terms for hypothetical could be unreal, imagined, wished for, only possible, etc.) For instance, if we say
“The dog is always happy when Dad stays home,”
that’s a simple statement of present habitual fact. A general truth is expressed in the same way:
“If the sun shines all day, it gets hot.”
Statements of habitual fact can also be made in the past:
“If we ate out at all, it was always in a cheap restaurant.”
And conditional or hypothetical statements can be made about the future:
“I will give you a call if I fly to Phoenix tomorrow.
(In the future, we could combine the base form of the verb (“give,” in this case) with other modal verbs: may, might, could.)
HYPOTHETICAL STATEMENTS
When we express the hypothetical in English in the present tense, we end up using the past tense in an interesting way.
If you liked tennis, we could go play on the new courts.
(Instead of could, we could have used would or might in that sentence.) The speaker of that sentence is not talking about something in the past tense, even though he uses the past tense “liked.” The speaker implies, in fact, that you don’t like to play tennis (in the present), so there’s no point, now, in going to the new tennis courts.
When we use the hypothetical in this conditional mode, we accommodate our need to speculate on how things could have been different, how we wish things were different, how we imagine that things could be different in the future, etc. In order to express the unreal, the hypothetical, the speculative, or imagined (all those being the same in this case), English has adopted an interesting habit of moving time one step backward. Two verbs are involved: one in the clause stating the condition (the “if” clause) and one in the result clause. Watch how the verbs change.
If the hypothetical result is in the future, we put the verb in the condition clause one step back — into the present:
If the Bulls win the game tomorrow, they will be champs again.
For present unreal events, we put the verb in the condition clause one step back — into the past:
If the Bulls won another championship, Roberto would drive into Chicago for the celebration.
I wish I had tickets.
If they were available anywhere, I would pay any price for them.
If he were a good friend, he would buy them for me.
Note that wishing is always an unreal condition. Note, too, that the verb to be uses the form were in an unreal condition.
For past unreal events — things that didn’t happen, but we can imagine — we put the verb in the condition clause a further step back — into the past perfect:
If the Pacers had won, Aunt Glad would have been rich.
If she had bet that much money on the Bulls, she and Uncle Chester could have retired.
I wish I had lived in Los Angeles when the Lakers had Magic Johnson.
If I had known you were coming, I would have baked a cake.
In this last sentence, note the conditional clause in the past perfect (had known) and the result clause that uses the conditional modal + have + the past participle of the main verb (would have baked).
Using Would and Could
When expressing the unreal, the result clauses need would, could or will. The condition clauses do not use those verbs; the condition clauses, instead, use verbs moved one step back in time from the result (as we will see in the tables below).
Future Conditionals versus Hypothetical Conditionals
When we want to predict something conditional about the future (what we think might happen), we can use the present tense in the if clause and will or be going + the base form of the verb in the result clause.
If Jeffrey grows any taller, the basketball coach is going to recruit him for the team.
If he doesn’t grow more, the coach will ignore him.
On the other hand, the hypothetical conditional allows us to express quite unlikely situations or situations that are downright impossible.
If I boxed against Evander Holyfield, he would kill me.
If my dad had been seven feet tall instead of less than six feet tall, he would have been a great athlete.
Other Forms of Conditional Statements
The conditional can also be signalled by means of a subject-verb inversion. This inversion replaces the word “if”; it is inappropriate to use both the word “if” and the subject-verb inversion in the same sentence.
Were Judita a better student, she would have a better relationship with her instructors.
Had Judita studied harder last fall, she would not have to take so many courses this spring.
Various Tenses in the Conditional
The following tables divide the uses of the conditional into three types, according to the time expressed in the if clause: (1) true in the present or future or possibly true in the future; (2) untrue or contrary to fact in the present; or (3) untrue or contrary to fact in the past. Notice the one step backward in time in the condition clause.
True in the Present
If clause………………..Independent clause
True as habit or fact
If + subject + present tense…………………….subject + present tense
If Judita works hard,…………………….she gets good grades.
True as one-time future event
If + subject + present tense………………………….subject + future tense
If Judita hands in her paper early tomorrow,………………………….she’ll probably get an A.
Possibly true in the future
If + subject + present tense ………………………….subject + modal + base form
If Judita hands in her paper early tomorrow,……………………….she may/might/could/should get an A.
Untrue in the Present
If clause ……………………Independent clause
If + subject + past tense ………………………….subject + would/could/might + simple form of verb
If Judita worked this hard in all her courses, …………………………she would/could/might get on Dean’s List.
If + subject + to be verb …………………………….subject + would/could/might + simple form of verb
If Judita were president of her class, ……………………….she could work to reform the grading policy.
Untrue in the Past
If clause …………………….Independent clause
If + subject + past perfect tense…………………………….subject + modal + have + past participle
If Judita had worked this hard in all her courses,…………………………….she would not have failed this semester.
First, Second, & Third Conditional
Conditional Clause and Main Clause
If I have enough money, (conditional clause) I will go to Japan. (main clause )
I will go to Japan, (main clause) if I have enough money (conditional clause)
First, Second, and Third Conditional
1. First conditional: If I have enough money, I will go to Japan.
2. Second conditional: If I had enough money, I would go to Japan.
3. Third conditional: If I had had enough money, I would have gone to Japan.
Conditional clause Main clause
1. If + Present Tense will + inf / present tense / imperative
Examples: If you help me with the dishes (if + pres),
I will help you with your homework. (will + inf)
If the sum of the digits of a number is divisible by three, the number is divisible by three (Pres. tense)
If you see Mr Fox tonight, tell him I am ill. (imperative).
2. If + Past Tense would + inf
3. If + Past Perfect Tense would have + past participle
We do not normally use will or would in the conditional clause, only in the main clause.
Uses of the Conditional
First conditional
Nature: Open condition, what is said in the condition is possible.
Time: This condition refers either to present or to future time.
e.g. If he is late, we will have to go without him.
If my mother knows about this, we are in serious trouble.
Second conditional
Nature: unreal (impossible) or improbable situations.
Time: present; the TENSE is past, but we are talking about the present, now.
e.g. If I knew her name, I would tell you.
If I were you, I would tell my father.
Compare: If I become president, I will change the social security system. (Said by a presidential candidate)
If I became president, I would change the social security system. (Said by a schoolboy: improbable)
If we win this match, we are qualified for the semifinals.
If I won a million pounds, I would stop teaching. (improbable)
Third conditional
Nature: unreal
Time: Past (so we are talking about a situation that was not so in the past.)
e.g. If you had warned me, I would not have told your father about that party.(But you didn’t, and I have).
• Remember!
1. The conditional construction does not normally use will or would in if-clauses. EXCEPTION: If will or would express willingness, as in requests, they can be used in if-clauses.
e.g. If you will come this way, the manager will see you now.
I would be grateful if you would give me a little help.
(= ± please, come this way; please, give me…)
2. For the second conditional, were replaces was:
If I were a rich man…
3. After if, we can either use “some (-one, -where…)” or “any(-one, -where…).
If I have some spare time next weekend….or :
If I have any spare time…
4. Instead of if not, we can use unless.
e.g. I’ll be back tomorrow unless there is a plane strike.
He’ll accept the job unless the salary is too low.
5. There is a “mixed type” as well, for the present results of an unreal condition in the past:
If + Past Perfect – would + inf.
If you had warned me [then], I would not be in prison [now].
Lecture Sheet On “Question Tags”
What are question tags?
‘Question tags’ are the small questions that often come at the ends of sentences in the speech (when spoken, the voice can go down or up), and sometimes in informal writing. Not a very good film, was it?
Negatives are usually contracted, but full forms are possible in formal speech. That’s the postman, isn’t it?
OFFICIAL: They promised to repay us within six months, did they not?
Question tags can be used to check whether something is true or to ask for agreement.
negative after affirmative, and vice versa
+ – ………………. – +
It’s cold., isn’t it? It’s not warm, is it? (Exception to this rule will be discussed later)
1. If the main sentence has an auxiliary verb (or non-auxiliary be), this is repeated in the question tag. The meeting’s at ten isn’t it? You wouldn’t like a puppy, would you?
2. If the main sentence has no auxiliary, the question tag has do. You like oysters, don’t you? Harry gave you a cheque, didn’t he?
3. meaning and intonation:
If the tag is a real question–if we really want to know something are not sure of the answer; we use a rising intonation: the voice goes up.With it the speaker- is less sure (and wants to be reassured). You haven’t heard a forecast of the weekend, | have you?
If the tag is not a real question–if we are sure of the answer–we use a falling intonation: the voice goes down. With a falling intonation, the speaker thinks the statement is true (here the speaker merely expects agreement).
It’s a lovely day, isn’t it?
1. requests: We often ask for help or information by using the structure ‘negative statement + question tags’. You couldn’t lend me a pound, could you?You haven’t got a pound, have you?
## Question tags (advanced points)
1. aren’t I? The question tag for ‘I am’ is ‘aren’t I?’ I’m late, aren’t I?
2. imperatives: After imperatives, ‘won’t you?’ is often used to invite people to do things (especially in BE), and ‘will/would/can/can’t/could you’ to tell or ask people to do things. Give me a hand, will you? Do sit down, won’t you?(GB) Open a window, would you? Shut up, can’t you? Wait here a moment, can you?
3. After a negative imperative, we use ‘will you?’ Don’t forget, will you? Don’t make any noise, will you? (Don’t…………will you?)
4. let’s After ‘let’s’ ………… we use ‘shall we?’ Let’s have a play, shall we?
5. there ‘There’ can be a subject in question tags. There is something wrong, isn’t there?
6. negative words: Non-negative tags are used after sentences containing negative words like never, no, nobody, hardly, scarcely and little. You never say what you’re thinking, do you? It’s no good, is it? It’s hardly rained at all this summer, has it? There’s little we can do about it, is there?
7. nothing, nobody, somebody etc à Nothing can happen, can it? (‘Nothing—It’) We use ‘they’ to refer to ‘nobody, anyone, anybody, none, neither, somebody, everyone, someone, everybody (and no one etc)’ Nobody phoned, did they? Somebody wanted a drink, didn’t they?
[“If a person doesn’t want to go on living, they are often very difficult to help. If anybody calls, take their name and address and tell them to call again later. Somebody left their umbrella behind yesterday. Would they please collect it from the office? Nobody was late, were they? Whoever comes tell them to go away. Tell each person to help themselves to get what they want. Everybody thinks they’re different from every else. I had a friend in Paris, and they had to go hospital for a month”]
*# But the tag for ‘everything’ must be singular, e.g. Everything looked beautiful, didn’t it?
8. non-auxiliary ‘have’ à After non-auxiliary ‘have’(referring states), question tags with ‘have’ and ‘do’ are often both possible in BE(‘Do’ is normal in AE.) Your father has a bad back, hasn’t/ doesn’t he?
9. ‘same-way’ question tags (or ’comment tags’ ) à Non-negative question tags are quite common after affirmative sentences. These are often used as responses to something that has been said, like ‘attention signals (short questions often used in conversation to show that the listener is paying attention and interested. e.g. Oh, yes? Really?)’ : the speaker repeats what he/she has just heard or learnt, and uses the tag to express interest, surprise, disinterest, delight, suspicion, disbelief, anger, please, concern or some other reactions. So, you’re getting married,. are you? How nice! So she thinks she’s going to become a doctor, does she? Well, well. You think you’re funny, do you? (When used in this way the tag is roughly equivalent to `Really!’ or ‘Indeed!’)
‘Same-way’ tags can also be used to ask questions. In this structure, we use the main sentences to make a guess and then ask (in the tag) if it was correct. Your mother’s at home, is she? This is the last bus, is it?
Negatives ‘same-way’ tags are occasionally heard in BE: they usually sound aggressive.
I see. You don’t like my cooking, do you?
10. Ellipsis: In sentences with question tags, it is quite common to leave out pronoun subjects and auxiliary verbs.(This is called ellipsis)
(It’s a) nice day isn’t it? (She was) talking to my husband, was she?
11. In a very informal speech, a question tag can sometimes be used after a question with an ellipsis. Have a good time, did you? Your mother at home, is she? John be there tomorrow, will he?
12. If there are two auxiliaries in the verb, only the first one is used in the formation of question tag. e.g. You should have gone to visit Ann’s ailing mother, shouldn’t you?
13. When ‘each’ follows the pronoun (we each, they each, you each), verbs, pronouns and possessive objectives, in both main sentence and tag, agree with a plural pronoun: We each have our problems, haven’t we?
Reinforcement tags
A. repeated subject and auxiliary verb: In formal spoken English (especially BE). A sentence sometimes ends with a ‘tag’ which repeats the subject and auxiliary verb.
You’ve gone mad, you have. I’m getting fed up, I am.
If the main clause has no auxiliary verbs, do is used in the tag. He likes his beer, he does.
B. use à One reason for using a reinforcement tag is simply to emphasize the idea of the main clause by repeating it You’re really clever, you are.
i. A tag can also move the subject to the end of a sentence, so that the verb comes earlier and gets more immediate attention (This is called ‘fronting’, a process of moving something to the beginning of a sentence, e.g. Crazy that driver. Myself, I think you’re a great mistake. A Very good lesson we had yesterday. Strange people they are! Getting in my way, you are. Likes his beer, John does.
ii. It is possible to announce the subject with a pronoun and put the full subject in a tag.
He hasn’t a chance, Fred hasn’t. She really got on my nerves, Sylvia did.
C. subject-only tags: It is possible to have reinforcement tags without verbs. Ellipsis of the subject and verb is possible. They’re very polite, your children.
Pronouns are not usually used alone in tags, except for reflexives¬. Don’t think much of the party, myself.
**A sentence like…… You aren’t listening to me, are you? is British but not American. But Americans often use ‘right?’ and ‘ok?’ as tags, e.g. I’ll bring the luggage in, shall I(BE) I’ll bring the luggage in, ok?(AE)
WORKSHEET ON QUESTION TAGS
1. That isn’t Tom,___? 2. You haven’t ridden a horse for a long time,___ ? 3. The twins hadn’t seen a hovercraft before,___? 4. People shouldn’t drop litter on pavements,___? 5. No salt is allowed,___? 6. Nothing was said,___? 7. Peter hardly ever goes to parties,___? 8. I don’t suppose anyone will volunteer,___? 9. No one would object,___? 10. Neither of them complained,___? 11. Mary’s coming tomorrow,___? 12. Peter’s heard the news,___? l3. Zane’d written before you phoned,___? 14. Cathrine’d come if you asked her,___? 15. You’d better change your wet shoes,___? l6. The boy’d rather go by air,___? (Remember that ~~~ ‘s=is or has, and ‘d=had or would) 17. Everyone warned you,___? 18. Someone had recognized him,___? 19. You saw him,___? (Don’t use a contracted form) 20. I borrowed your car,___? (make a comment tag) 21. I didn’t think you’d need it,___? (Make a comment tag) 22. Let’s sit in the garden,___? 23. Pass .the salt,please,___? 24.You should have done this,___? 25. Everybody can’t be clever,___? 26. Everything has gone wrong today,___? 27. Kindly do me a favour,___? 28. Shut the door;___? 29. That was a lark,___?(Make a comment tag) 30. John will be attending the university in September,___? 31. They each are not responsible for this,___? 32. We must go now,___? 33. You haven’t had tea yet,___? 34. A11’s well that ends well,___? 35. It’s of no use,___? 36. They had to do it,___? 37. Give me a hand,___? 38. He ought not to have invited him,___? 39. Let’s have some fun,___? 40. The mother rose in her,___? 41. Check the beast in you,___? 42. The fox was noticed in his character,___? 43. We have to study English,___? 44. The unfed should be fed,___? 45. Summer has set in,___? 46. We shall be walking in the morning,___? 47. There is no king in America,___? 48. The train had met an accident,___? 49. Our country charms everyone,___? 50. But me no buts,___? 51. Time and tide await none,___?
P@ul’s……..success starts here. (এই কথাটা লেকচার শিটের নিচে লিখে দিতাম।)
