In Vedantic philosophy, 'avidyā' or ignorance stands as a central concept, regarded as the root cause of the cycle of worldly existence that binds the individual self. When ignorance is understood not as a single, unified entity but as manifold and multiple, the teachers of the Bhāmatī school have shed particular light on how the persistence of the world can be explained. Had ignorance been conceived as a singular reality, a troubling question would arise: if countless beings have attained liberation across vast ages, why has this worldly existence not dissolved into nothingness? Why does the cosmos continue its relentless motion, and why do living beings remain imprisoned in the wheel of birth and death? The answer lies in this: the ignorance of other beings still persists. Because of this lingering ignorance, the world continues to manifest before those who do not know, and new experiences unfold perpetually according to their karmic fruits. From this perspective, ignorance is not merely a private affair of the individual; it is woven into the collective consciousness of all sentient beings. In Indian philosophy, particularly in Advaita Vedānta, the concept of avidyā is profoundly foundational. Ignorance is that force which veils the ultimate reality and causes the world to appear in countless forms. Various interpretations exist regarding the nature and functioning of this ignorance, and among them, the Bhāmatī school represents a significant philosophical position. According to the Bhāmatī view, the multiplicity of ignorance is itself supported by the Vedas—that is, ignorance need not be singular but can be many. The proponents of the Bhāmatī school cite Vedic mantras in support of their doctrine. In a particular mantra, Indra, the king of gods, is said to 'assume many forms through māyā.' This mantra is deeply significant because it directly establishes a connection between māyā (which is synonymous with avidyā or its operative power) and multiplicity. Indra's capacity to assume many forms is here demonstrated as the functioning of māyā. If māyā or ignorance were singular, how could one being assume many forms simultaneously? This mantra suggests that māyā possesses a differentiating power capable of expressing a single reality in countless forms. The exponents of the Bhāmatī school interpret this mantra as evidence for the multiplicity of ignorance. According to them, each individual self possesses its own particular ignorance. In other words, each living being has its own avidyā, which obscures for that being alone the truth of the world and Brahman. If ignorance were singular, the liberation of one being would necessarily entail the liberation of all beings—a conclusion that contradicts our direct experience. We observe that when one person attains liberation, others continue to suffer bondage. This reality supports the doctrine of ignorance's manifoldness. It should be noted that another school within Advaita Vedānta, the Vivaraṇa tradition, upholds the singularity of ignorance. According to them, avidyā is one and universal to all beings. The differentiation among beings lies in the limiting conditions of their intellects, not in the essential nature of ignorance itself. Yet the Bhāmatī school opposes this reasoning and, with the aid of Vedic mantras, establishes the doctrine of ignorance's multiplicity. The Bhāmatī school's pluralism regarding ignorance finds its support in the Vedas. The mantra concerning Indra's assumption of many forms provides powerful foundation for this doctrine. According to this school, ignorance differs from being to being, a principle that explains the notion of each individual's distinct bondage and liberation. This interpretation brings an essential perspective to the intricate philosophical framework of Advaita Vedānta regarding the nature of avidyā. Here the word 'māyā' is not employed in the singular but carries the implication of plurality. Through this usage, it is understood that each being's ignorance possesses its own distinct operations, affecting their unique experiences and modes of consciousness. Ignorance in the plural is referred to as 'avidyāḥ' (avidyāḥ). Its purpose is to explain the multiplicity of innumerable worldly existences and the diverse experiences that differentiate them. Each being possesses its own avidyā, which keeps it estranged from Brahman's true nature and causes this world to appear as reality.
This pluralism results in each being’s path to liberation being distinct, and one being’s liberation does not bring about the cessation of another being’s cycle of existence.
The view of “narrow” Vedantins: The individual soul is the substrate; Brahman is the object. Within Vedanta, there exists a distinctive perspective, particularly in the Bhāmatī tradition, which associates ignorance (avidyā) directly not with Brahman but with the individual self (jīva). This doctrine provides a nuanced explanation regarding the location and efficacy of ignorance. The Āchāryas who follow the Bhāmatī tradition, especially the followers of Āchārya Vāchaspati Mishra, find it problematic to assume that ignorance directly veils Brahman. Their central thesis runs as follows:
The individual soul (jīva) is the substrate of ignorance (ādhāra)—which means ignorance resides within individual consciousness. In other words, ignorance is not a universal entity that veils Brahman; rather, it is a mental condition held within the inner faculties (antaḥkaraṇa) of each individual being. This personal ignorance keeps the soul confined in delusion.
Brahman is the object of ignorance (viṣaya)—which means Brahman is obscured by ignorance, but Brahman itself is unaffected by it. Ignorance causes the soul to harbor misconceptions about Brahman, yet this misconception does not in any way alter Brahman’s true nature. Brahman forever remains pure, luminous, and untouched by ignorance. The soul’s ignorance causes Brahman to be perceived as ‘unknown’ or ‘unmanifest’, but Brahman’s true essence remains unchanged. Fundamentally, Brahman is never truly affected or transformed by ignorance. Rather, ignorance dwells within the soul’s inner faculties (the internal organs comprising mind, intellect, ego, and consciousness). This internal ignorance causes the soul to perceive Brahman as unknown or hidden. This doctrine creates a clear distinction between Brahman’s uninterrupted purity and the experiential reality of the soul. It explains how the soul remains bound in the cycle of existence because of ignorance, while Brahman exists as a beginningless, infinite, and ignorance-free entity. This analysis provides a profound insight into the nature of ignorance and the relationship between soul and Brahman in Vedantic philosophy.
A defining feature of this line of thought is the acceptance of the multiplicity of souls and, consequently, the multiplicity of ignorances. Each soul is considered the sole substrate of its own beginningless ignorance. This means ignorance is not a single, universal entity. Ignorance is dispelled only when a particular soul attains self-knowledge through the practice of śravaṇa (listening to scripture), manana (reflection), and nididhyāsana (meditation). This doctrine directly explains the observable fact that while some individuals attain liberation, others remain ignorant. This actual experience serves as powerful evidence for the doctrine of multiple ignorances.
The Bhāmatī school argues strenuously against the idea of a single, universal ignorance. For if there were only one universal ignorance, then when one soul attained self-knowledge, that single ignorance would be completely destroyed. This would logically lead to the simultaneous liberation of all beings. Yet our experiential observation proves otherwise. We consistently witness in the same world the coexistence of liberated (knowledgeable/free) and ignorant (deluded) persons. Therefore, the Bhāmatī Āchāryas arrive at the conclusion that ignorances are manifold, and each soul possesses its own distinct ignorance.
Accepting the multiplicity of ignorances provides a coherent explanation for the persistent nature of saṃsāra (the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth). Had ignorance been a single entity, the question would arise: why has the world-cycle not dissolved, even after countless souls have attained liberation over countless ages? According to this perspective, the answer is that other souls’ ignorances still exist.
Consequently, the world is revealed and experienced by those who dwell in ignorance.
The Bhāmatī tradition claims that its doctrine of multiple avidyās finds direct support in the Vedas. For instance, in a particular Vedic hymn, Indra is described as having “assumed many forms through māyā.” Here, the word “māyā” is understood not in a singular sense, but as pointing toward the manifold workings of ignorance in relation to individual jīvas. The subtle pluralistic suggestion in the Vedic text, when interpreted from the perspective of this school, supports the idea that “māyā” (often synonymous with avidyā in this context) denotes various manifestations of ignorance. Therefore, avidyā is frequently referred to in the plural (avidyāḥ) to account for the worldly existence of countless beings and the diversity of their experiences. In this view, avidyā never covers over the jīva as such. They reject the statement, “The self is veiled by ignorance.” Rather, according to them—the substrate (āśraya) of avidyā is the jīva; that is, avidyā resides within the inner faculty of the individual. The object (viṣaya) of avidyā is Brahman; in other words, avidyā prevents the jīva from knowing Brahman.
As a result, Brahman and jīva are seen as two almost separate entities—Brahman remains eternally pure, unsullied radiance. The jīva remains in darkness until knowledge dawns. These thinkers generally regard jīvas as multiple and distinct (at least from the empirical standpoint), for it is difficult to imagine numerous avidyās residing within a single, non-dual Self. According to them, Īśvara (Brahman with māyā) is the lord of māyā, never its victim; yet countless jīvas remain bound by avidyā until they attain liberation.
Though this interpretation preserves Brahman’s preeminence, it is often criticized as “crude” Vedānta or Vedānta shrouded in dualism—because it establishes a clear division between jīva and Brahman, and the non-dual identity becomes partially obscured. The view of strict non-dualists is that Brahman/Self is both the substrate and the object. Other non-dualists (particularly the Vivaraṇa school—the lineage of Padmapāda and Prakāśātman) argue that, from the highest standpoint, only Brahman is ultimately real. Therefore, it is more fitting to say that Brahman/Self itself is both the substrate and the object of avidyā. That is, avidyā is a power (māyā) that abides in Brahman and veils Brahman’s true nature, such that one non-dual Self appears as many jīvas, objects, and worlds.
They argue that this is more consonant with non-dual thought, for jīva and Brahman are not two separate entities; the jīva is in fact Brahman, merely appearing distorted through the influence of avidyā. Therefore, saying “the Self is veiled by ignorance” is philosophically acceptable, provided we remember that the veiling is relative, never ultimate.
This view is supported by many śrutis (Vedic scriptures): in the Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad, the example of Indra’s māyā illustrates that a single being manifests in many forms. This suggests that one Brahman appears in many forms, though his fundamental nature remains unchanged. Just as a magician assumes many forms simultaneously yet remains essentially one. Again, the celebrated saying: “Neha nānāsti kiñcana”—”Here (in Brahman) there is no multiplicity whatsoever.” This utterance establishes the very foundation of non-dualism, affirming that there exists no second entity apart from Brahman, and whatever appears as multiplicity is merely the result of avidyā.