Lecture Sheet
On “Conditionals”
Conditional
Verb Forms
If I had a
hammer, I’d hammer in the morning,
I’d hammer in
the evening, all over this land.
I’d hammer out
danger, I’d hammer out warning,
I’d hammer out
love between my brothers and my sisters
Oh, oh, all
over this land.
If I had a
bell, I’d ring it in the morning,
I’d ring it in
the evening, all over this land.
I’d ring out
danger, I’d ring out warning,
I’d ring out
love between my brothers and my sisters
Oh, oh, all
over this land.
So go the first
two stanzas of Lee Hays and Pete Seeger’s folk tune, “If I had a
hammer,” one of the most famous tunes and lyrics in the history of
American song. The grammar of the lyrics uses what is called the conditional.
The writer expresses an action or an idea (hammering out danger and warning and
love) that is dependent on a condition, on something that is only imagined
(having a hammer or a bell — or, in the next stanza, a song). In this
situation, the lyricist imagines what he would do if he “had a
hammer” — now, in the present. He might also have imagined what he would
have done if he “had had a hammer,” in the past, prior to something
else happening:
“If I had
had a hammer, I would have hammered a warning.”
The conditional
is possible also in the future tense:
“If I have
a hammer tomorrow, I might hammer out warning.
OR
. . . I will
hammer out warning.”
OR
“If I were
to have a hammer tomorrow, I would hammer out warning.”
And, finally,
he could imagine what is called the habitual present conditional:
“If/when I
have a hammer, I hammer out warning.” [I do it all the time, whenever I
have a hammer.]
The Factual
versus the Unreal or Hypothetical
In expressing a
conditional situation, we must be able to distinguish between what is a factual
statement and what is a hypothetical statement. (Other terms for hypothetical
could be unreal, imagined, wished for, only possible, etc.) For instance, if we
say
“The dog
is always happy when Dad stays home,”
that’s a simple
statement of present habitual fact. A general truth is expressed in the same
way:
“If the
sun shines all day, it gets hot.”
Statements of
habitual fact can also be made in the past:
“If we ate
out at all, it was always in a cheap restaurant.”
And conditional
or hypothetical statements can be made about the future:
“I will
give you a call if I fly to Phoenix tomorrow.
(In the future,
we could combine the base form of the verb (“give,” in this case)
with other modal verbs: may, might, could.)
HYPOTHETICAL
STATEMENTS
When we express
the hypothetical in English in the present tense, we end up using the past
tense in an interesting way.
If you liked
tennis, we could go play on the new courts.
(Instead of
could, we could have used would or might in that sentence.) The speaker of that
sentence is not talking about something in the past tense, even though he uses
the past tense “liked.” The speaker implies, in fact, that you don’t
like to play tennis (in the present), so there’s no point, now, in going to the
new tennis courts.
When we use the
hypothetical in this conditional mode, we accommodate our need to speculate on
how things could have been different, how we wish things were different, how we
imagine that things could be different in the future, etc. In order to express
the unreal, the hypothetical, the speculative, or imagined (all those being the
same in this case), English has adopted an interesting habit of moving time one
step backward. Two verbs are involved: one in the clause stating the condition
(the “if” clause) and one in the result clause. Watch how the verbs
change.
If the
hypothetical result is in the future, we put the verb in the condition clause
one step back — into the present:
If the Bulls
win the game tomorrow, they will be champs again.
For present
unreal events, we put the verb in the condition clause one step back — into the
past:
If the Bulls
won another championship, Roberto would drive into Chicago for the celebration.
I wish I had
tickets.
If they were
available anywhere, I would pay any price for them.
If he were a
good friend, he would buy them for me.
Note that
wishing is always an unreal condition. Note, too, that the verb to be uses the
form were in an unreal condition.
For past unreal
events — things that didn’t happen, but we can imagine — we put the verb in the
condition clause a further step back — into the past perfect:
If the Pacers
had won, Aunt Glad would have been rich.
If she had bet that
much money on the Bulls, she and Uncle Chester could have retired.
I wish I had
lived in Los Angeles when the Lakers had Magic Johnson.
If I had known
you were coming, I would have baked a cake.
In this last
sentence, note the conditional clause in the past perfect (had known) and the
result clause that uses the conditional modal + have + the past participle of
the main verb (would have baked).
Using Would and
Could
When expressing
the unreal, the result clauses need would, could or will. The condition clauses
do not use those verbs; the condition clauses, instead, use verbs moved one
step back in time from the result (as we will see in the tables below).
Future
Conditionals versus Hypothetical Conditionals
When we want to
predict something conditional about the future (what we think might happen), we
can use the present tense in the if clause and will or be going + the base form
of the verb in the result clause.
If Jeffrey
grows any taller, the basketball coach is going to recruit him for the team.
If he doesn’t
grow more, the coach will ignore him.
On the other
hand, the hypothetical conditional allows us to express quite unlikely
situations or situations that are downright impossible.
If I boxed
against Evander Holyfield, he would kill me.
If my dad had
been seven feet tall instead of less than six feet tall, he would have been a
great athlete.
Other Forms of
Conditional Statements
The conditional
can also be signalled by means of a subject-verb inversion. This inversion
replaces the word “if”; it is inappropriate to use both the word
“if” and the subject-verb inversion in the same sentence.
Were Judita a
better student, she would have a better relationship with her instructors.
Had Judita
studied harder last fall, she would not have to take so many courses this
spring.
Various Tenses
in the Conditional
The following
tables divide the uses of the conditional into three types, according to the
time expressed in the if clause: (1) true in the present or future or possibly
true in the future; (2) untrue or contrary to fact in the present; or (3)
untrue or contrary to fact in the past. Notice the one step backward in time in
the condition clause.
True in the
Present
If
clause………………..Independent clause
True as habit
or fact
If + subject +
present tense…………………….subject + present tense
If Judita works
hard,…………………….she gets good grades.
True as
one-time future event
If + subject +
present tense………………………….subject + future tense
If Judita hands
in her paper early tomorrow,………………………….she’ll probably get
an A.
Possibly true
in the future
If + subject +
present tense ………………………….subject + modal + base form
If Judita hands
in her paper early tomorrow,……………………….she
may/might/could/should get an A.
Untrue in the
Present
If clause
……………………Independent clause
If + subject +
past tense ………………………….subject + would/could/might + simple
form of verb
If Judita
worked this hard in all her courses, …………………………she
would/could/might get on Dean’s List.
If + subject +
to be verb …………………………….subject + would/could/might +
simple form of verb
If Judita were
president of her class, ……………………….she could work to reform
the grading policy.
Untrue in the
Past
If clause
…………………….Independent clause
If + subject +
past perfect tense…………………………….subject + modal + have +
past participle
If Judita had
worked this hard in all her courses,…………………………….she would
not have failed this semester.
First, Second,
& Third Conditional
Conditional
Clause and Main Clause
If I have
enough money, (conditional clause) I will go to Japan. (main clause )
I will go to
Japan, (main clause) if I have enough money (conditional clause)
First, Second,
and Third Conditional
1. First
conditional: If I have enough money, I will go to Japan.
2. Second
conditional: If I had enough money, I would go to Japan.
3. Third
conditional: If I had had enough money, I would have gone to Japan.
Conditional
clause Main clause
1. If + Present
Tense will + inf / present tense / imperative
Examples: If
you help me with the dishes (if + pres),
I will help you
with your homework. (will + inf)
If the sum of
the digits of a number is divisible by three, the number is divisible by three
(Pres. tense)
If you see Mr
Fox tonight, tell him I am ill. (imperative).
2. If + Past
Tense would + inf
3. If + Past
Perfect Tense would have + past participle
We do not
normally use will or would in the conditional clause, only in the main clause.
Uses of the
Conditional
First
conditional
Nature: Open
condition, what is said in the condition is possible.
Time: This
condition refers either to present or to future time.
e.g. If he is
late, we will have to go without him.
If my mother
knows about this, we are in serious trouble.
Second
conditional
Nature: unreal
(impossible) or improbable situations.
Time: present;
the TENSE is past, but we are talking about the present, now.
e.g. If I knew
her name, I would tell you.
If I were you,
I would tell my father.
Compare: If I
become president, I will change the social security system. (Said by a
presidential candidate)
If I became
president, I would change the social security system. (Said by a schoolboy:
improbable)
If we win this
match, we are qualified for the semifinals.
If I won a
million pounds, I would stop teaching. (improbable)
Third
conditional
Nature: unreal
Time: Past (so
we are talking about a situation that was not so in the past.)
e.g. If you had
warned me, I would not have told your father about that party.(But you didn’t,
and I have).
• Remember!
1. The
conditional construction does not normally use will or would in if-clauses.
EXCEPTION: If will or would express willingness, as in requests, they can be
used in if-clauses.
e.g. If you
will come this way, the manager will see you now.
I would be
grateful if you would give me a little help.
(= ± please, come this way; please, give me…)
2. For the
second conditional, were replaces was:
If I were a
rich man…
3. After if, we
can either use “some (-one, -where…)” or “any(-one,
-where…).
If I have some
spare time next weekend….or :
If I have any spare
time…
4. Instead of
if not, we can use unless.
e.g. I’ll be
back tomorrow unless there is a plane strike.
He’ll accept
the job unless the salary is too low.
5. There is a
“mixed type” as well, for the present results of an unreal condition
in the past:
If + Past
Perfect – would + inf.
If you had
warned me [then], I would not be in prison [now].
Lecture Sheet
On “Question Tags”
What are
question tags?
‘Question tags’
are the small questions that often come at the ends of sentences in the speech
(when spoken, the voice can go down or up), and sometimes in informal writing.
Not a very good film, was it?
Negatives are
usually contracted, but full forms are possible in formal speech. That’s the
postman, isn’t it?
OFFICIAL: They
promised to repay us within six months, did they not?
Question tags
can be used to check whether something is true or to ask for agreement.
negative after
affirmative, and vice versa
+ –
………………. – +
It’s cold.,
isn’t it? It’s not warm, is it? (Exception to this rule will be discussed
later)
1. If the main
sentence has an auxiliary verb (or non-auxiliary be), this is repeated in the
question tag. The meeting’s at ten isn’t it? You wouldn’t like a puppy, would
you?
2. If the main
sentence has no auxiliary, the question tag has do. You like oysters, don’t
you? Harry gave you a cheque, didn’t he?
3. meaning and
intonation:
If the tag is a
real question–if we really want to know something are not sure of the answer;
we use a rising intonation: the voice goes up.With it the speaker- is less sure
(and wants to be reassured). You haven’t heard a forecast of the weekend, |
have you?
If the tag is
not a real question–if we are sure of the answer–we use a falling intonation:
the voice goes down. With a falling intonation, the speaker thinks the
statement is true (here the speaker merely expects agreement).
It’s a lovely
day, isn’t it?
1. requests: We
often ask for help or information by using the structure ‘negative statement +
question tags’. You couldn’t lend me a pound, could you?You haven’t got a
pound, have you?
## Question
tags (advanced points)
1. aren’t I?
The question tag for ‘I am’ is ‘aren’t I?’ I’m late, aren’t I?
2. imperatives:
After imperatives, ‘won’t you?’ is often used to invite people to do things
(especially in BE), and ‘will/would/can/can’t/could you’ to tell or ask people
to do things. Give me a hand, will you? Do sit down, won’t you?(GB) Open a
window, would you? Shut up, can’t you? Wait here a moment, can you?
3. After a
negative imperative, we use ‘will you?’ Don’t forget, will you? Don’t make any
noise, will you? (Don’t…………will you?)
4. let’s After
‘let’s’ ………… we use ‘shall we?’ Let’s have a play, shall we?
5. there
‘There’ can be a subject in question tags. There is something wrong, isn’t
there?
6. negative words:
Non-negative tags are used after sentences containing negative words like
never, no, nobody, hardly, scarcely and little. You never say what you’re
thinking, do you? It’s no good, is it? It’s hardly rained at all this summer,
has it? There’s little we can do about it, is there?
7. nothing,
nobody, somebody etc à Nothing can happen, can it? (‘Nothing—It’) We use ‘they’
to refer to ‘nobody, anyone, anybody, none, neither, somebody, everyone,
someone, everybody (and no one etc)’ Nobody phoned, did they? Somebody wanted a
drink, didn’t they?
[“If a person
doesn’t want to go on living, they are often very difficult to help. If anybody
calls, take their name and address and tell them to call again later. Somebody
left their umbrella behind yesterday. Would they please collect it from the
office? Nobody was late, were they? Whoever comes tell them to go away. Tell
each person to help themselves to get what they want. Everybody thinks they’re
different from every else. I had a friend in Paris, and they had to go hospital
for a month”]
*# But the tag
for ‘everything’ must be singular, e.g. Everything looked beautiful, didn’t it?
8.
non-auxiliary ‘have’ à After non-auxiliary ‘have'(referring states), question
tags with ‘have’ and ‘do’ are often both possible in BE(‘Do’ is normal in AE.)
Your father has a bad back, hasn’t/ doesn’t he?
9. ‘same-way’
question tags (or ‘comment tags’ ) à Non-negative question tags are quite
common after affirmative sentences. These are often used as responses to
something that has been said, like ‘attention signals (short questions often
used in conversation to show that the listener is paying attention and
interested. e.g. Oh, yes? Really?)’ : the speaker repeats what he/she has just
heard or learnt, and uses the tag to express interest, surprise, disinterest,
delight, suspicion, disbelief, anger, please, concern or some other reactions.
So, you’re getting married,. are you? How nice! So she thinks she’s going to
become a doctor, does she? Well, well. You think you’re funny, do you? (When
used in this way the tag is roughly equivalent to `Really!’ or ‘Indeed!’)
‘Same-way’ tags can also be used to ask questions. In this structure, we use the main sentences to make a guess and then ask (in the tag) if it was correct. Your mother’s at home, is she? This is the last bus, is it?
Negatives ‘same-way’ tags are occasionally heard in BE: they usually sound aggressive.
I see. You don’t like my cooking, do you?
10. Ellipsis: In sentences with question tags, it is quite common to leave out pronoun subjects and auxiliary verbs.(This is called ellipsis)
(It’s a) nice day isn’t it? (She was) talking to my husband, was she?
11. In a very informal speech, a question tag can sometimes be used after a question with an ellipsis. Have a good time, did you? Your mother at home, is she? John be there tomorrow, will he?
12. If there are two auxiliaries in the verb, only the first one is used in the formation of question tag. e.g. You should have gone to visit Ann’s ailing mother, shouldn’t you?
13. When ‘each’ follows the pronoun (we each, they each, you each), verbs, pronouns and possessive objectives, in both main sentence and tag, agree with a plural pronoun: We each have our problems, haven’t we?
Reinforcement tags
A. repeated subject and auxiliary verb: In formal spoken English (especially BE). A sentence sometimes ends with a ‘tag’ which repeats the subject and auxiliary verb.
You’ve gone mad, you have. I’m getting fed up, I am.
If the main clause has no auxiliary verbs, do is used in the tag. He likes his beer, he does.
B. use à One reason for using a reinforcement tag is simply to emphasize the idea of the main clause by repeating it You’re really clever, you are.
i. A tag can also move the subject to the end of a sentence, so that the verb comes earlier and gets more immediate attention (This is called ‘fronting’, a process of moving something to the beginning of a sentence, e.g. Crazy that driver. Myself, I think you’re a great mistake. A Very good lesson we had yesterday. Strange people they are! Getting in my way, you are. Likes his beer, John does.
ii. It is possible to announce the subject with a pronoun and put the full subject in a tag.
He hasn’t a chance, Fred hasn’t. She really got on my nerves, Sylvia did.
C. subject-only tags: It is possible to have reinforcement tags without verbs. Ellipsis of the subject and verb is possible. They’re very polite, your children.
Pronouns are not usually used alone in tags, except for reflexives¬. Don’t think much of the party, myself.
**A sentence like…… You aren’t listening to me, are you? is British but not American. But Americans often use ‘right?’ and ‘ok?’ as tags, e.g. I’ll bring the luggage in, shall I(BE) I’ll bring the luggage in, ok?(AE)
WORKSHEET ON QUESTION TAGS
1. That isn’t Tom,___? 2. You haven’t ridden a horse for a long time,___ ? 3. The twins hadn’t seen a hovercraft before,___? 4. People shouldn’t drop litter on pavements,___? 5. No salt is allowed,___? 6. Nothing was said,___? 7. Peter hardly ever goes to parties,___? 8. I don’t suppose anyone will volunteer,___? 9. No one would object,___? 10. Neither of them complained,___? 11. Mary’s coming tomorrow,___? 12. Peter’s heard the news,___? l3. Zane’d written before you phoned,___? 14. Cathrine’d come if you asked her,___? 15. You’d better change your wet shoes,___? l6. The boy’d rather go by air,___? (Remember that ~~~ ‘s=is or has, and ‘d=had or would) 17. Everyone warned you,___? 18. Someone had recognized him,___? 19. You saw him,___? (Don’t use a contracted form) 20. I borrowed your car,___? (make a comment tag) 21. I didn’t think you’d need it,___? (Make a comment tag) 22. Let’s sit in the garden,___? 23. Pass .the salt,please,___? 24.You should have done this,___? 25. Everybody can’t be clever,___? 26. Everything has gone wrong today,___? 27. Kindly do me a favour,___? 28. Shut the door;___? 29. That was a lark,___?(Make a comment tag) 30. John will be attending the university in September,___? 31. They each are not responsible for this,___? 32. We must go now,___? 33. You haven’t had tea yet,___? 34. A11’s well that ends well,___? 35. It’s of no use,___? 36. They had to do it,___? 37. Give me a hand,___? 38. He ought not to have invited him,___? 39. Let’s have some fun,___? 40. The mother rose in her,___? 41. Check the beast in you,___? 42. The fox was noticed in his character,___? 43. We have to study English,___? 44. The unfed should be fed,___? 45. Summer has set in,___? 46. We shall be walking in the morning,___? 47. There is no king in America,___? 48. The train had met an accident,___? 49. Our country charms everyone,___? 50. But me no buts,___? 51. Time and tide await none,___?
P@ul’s……..success starts here. (I used to write this at the bottom of lecture sheets.)